(NCERT-based, complete & detailed)
1. Introduction
- The Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilisation) is one of the world’s earliest urban civilisations (c. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE).
- First discovered in 1921 at Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan) and 1922 at Mohenjodaro (Sind, Pakistan).
- Spread over present-day Pakistan, northwest India, and parts of Afghanistan.
- Archaeological evidence forms the main source of knowledge.
2. Geographical Extent
- Area: About 1.5 million sq. km.
- Major Sites:
- Pakistan: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Chanhu-daro.
- India: Lothal, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi.
- Boundaries:
- West: Sutkagendor (Baluchistan)
- East: Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
- North: Manda (Jammu)
- South: Daimabad (Maharashtra)
3. Periodisation
- Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300–2600 BCE) – Village life + beginning of urbanisation.
- Mature Harappan Phase (c. 2600–1900 BCE) – Fully developed cities, trade, writing, uniform culture.
- Late Harappan Phase (c. 1900–1300 BCE) – Decline of cities, ruralisation, cultural continuity in villages.
4. Town Planning
- Based on grid pattern – streets at right angles, dividing city into blocks.
- Two main areas:
- Citadel (western high mound) – granaries, warehouses, important structures.
- Lower Town – residential areas for common people.
- Drainage System – underground, covered drains, soak pits.
- Building Materials – baked bricks (standardised ratio 1:2:4), mud bricks.
- Public Buildings:
- Granaries (Harappa & Mohenjodaro)
- Great Bath (Mohenjodaro) – possibly for ritual bathing.
- Assembly Halls.
5. Agriculture
- Main crops: Wheat, barley, pulses, sesame, mustard, cotton (world’s earliest evidence of cotton cultivation).
- Irrigation through wells, canals, floodwater farming.
- Evidence of ploughed fields at Kalibangan.
- Seasonal cropping: Rabi & Kharif.
6. Craft Production
- Specialised crafts: bead-making, shell-cutting, seal-making, pottery.
- Centres: Chanhudaro (beads), Lothal (semi-precious stones, bead factory), Nageshwar (shell work).
- Materials: carnelian, steatite, faience, copper, bronze, gold, silver.
7. Trade & Exchange
- Internal and long-distance trade.
- Inland trade via bullock carts, river boats.
- External trade with Mesopotamia (Sumer) – Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha (believed to be Harappa).
- Items traded: beads, semi-precious stones, metals, cotton textiles.
- Use of weights (binary system) and measures.
8. Script
- Undeciphered Harappan script.
- Written from right to left (sometimes boustrophedon).
- Found on seals, pottery, copper tools, jewellery.
- Around 400 distinct signs.
9. Seals
- Made of steatite, square or rectangular.
- Engraved with animals (unicorn, bull, elephant, rhinoceros) and script.
- Purpose: identification, trade, property ownership, amulets.
10. Religious Beliefs
- No temples found, but evidence suggests:
- Worship of Mother Goddess.
- Worship of Proto-Shiva / Pashupati seal (three-faced deity with animals).
- Sacred animals and trees.
- Possible fire altars at Kalibangan & Lothal.
- Ritual bathing in Great Bath.
11. Social Structure
- Planned cities show an organised society.
- Existence of ruling class (citadel), merchants, artisans, farmers, labourers.
- Social differentiation seen in size of houses, luxury items.
12. Subsistence & Food
- Diet: Wheat, barley, rice (Lothal), pulses, sesame, mustard.
- Domesticated animals: Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, elephant.
- Fishing and hunting supplemented food.
13. Burial Practices
- Dead buried with pottery, ornaments, food items.
- Types: Extended burial, fractional burial (bones collected later).
- No large tombs – equality in death.
- Cemetery-H culture.
14. Decline of the Harappan Civilisation
- Causes (still debated):
- Climate change, drying of rivers (Saraswati).
- Floods.
- Decline in trade.
- Overuse of land, deforestation.
- Possible invasion by Indo-Aryans (Mortimer Wheeler’s theory – now less accepted).
- Result: Urban centres abandoned, rural lifestyle emerged.
15. Important Archaeologists & Contributions
- Daya Ram Sahni – Excavated Harappa (1921).
- R.D. Banerji – Excavated Mohenjodaro (1922).
- Sir John Marshall – Director General of ASI, announced discovery to world.
- Mortimer Wheeler – Contributed to understanding fortifications.
- Rakhal Das Banerjee, Madho Sarup Vats, B.K. Thapar – Various excavations.
16. Importance of the Harappan Civilisation
- One of the earliest examples of urban planning.
- Advanced drainage and water management.
- Earliest evidence of cotton cultivation.
- Interaction with foreign civilisations.
- Legacy in agricultural practices, craft traditions.
