Writing and City Life complete course
Introduction
The use of bronze brought about significant changes in human life and the social relations of human life became more extensive. Wherever bronze tools and weapons started being used, progress began to take place in economic, social, political and cultural fields. Due to the development in trade, there was progress in economic fields. As a result, the question of property became complex and there was a need for rules, laws etc. to protect it. Then, due to the complexity of life in cities, the need for an organization was felt to regulate public life. As a result, over time, rulers and kings emerged in society, which we today call government. Gradually, groups of people adopted different professions. Some people acquired expertise in special crafts. As a result, division of labor began. Writing was invented to accumulate human experience. Similarly, currency was also invented to facilitate transactions. In this way, about 4000 years ago, another revolution took place, which is called the ‘urban revolution’. The name of the civilization representing it was ‘Mesopotamian Civilization’.
Iraq was known as ‘Mesopotamia’ in ancient times. Mesopotamia is a Greek word. It is made up of two words ‘Meso’ and ‘Potam’. ‘Meso’ means middle and ‘Potam’ means river. Thus, the literal meaning of Mesopotamia is the area between two rivers. The two rivers flowing in the ancient Iraq region were ‘Tigris’ and ‘Euphrates’. Thus, the region situated between the ‘Tigris’ and ‘Euphrates’ rivers was called Mesopotamia. These rivers deposited a large amount of fertile soil in this region every year, due to which this area was very fertile. Many canals were also built in these rivers, which irrigated far-flung parts of this region. These rivers were also used for transportation, in which boats used to run. Caravans also used to run along their banks. Thus, this region was extremely suitable for the development of a strong civilization. The Mesopotamian region was not limited to the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers but extended till the south of the Persian Gulf. This region can be divided into three regions- first, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates (Doab) which is called Assyria, second, the area adjacent to the confluence, Akkad and third, Sumer. In these three regions, four civilizations developed in ancient times, which are known as Assyrian and Chaldean, Babylonian and Sumerian. Thus, the above four civilizations come under the civilization of Mesopotamia. It is said about these civilizations that Sumeria gave birth to civilization, Babylon took it to its peak and Assyria accepted it. Among these civilizations, the civilization of ‘Sumeria’ developed first. Under this chapter, we will try to understand the language, writing and various aspects of urban life of the period of Mesopotamian civilization.
Technical terms
Mesopotamia: The name Mesopotamia is made up of two Greek words Memos and Potamos. Memos means ‘middle’ and Potamos means ‘river’. Thus its literal meaning is the area between the rivers. This word indicates the fertile land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Noah- This person described in the Bible was chosen by God to save lives from the flood. According to the Bible, this person kept one pair of each animal in his boat and saved them safely from the flood.
Ziusudra- The hero of Mesopotamian literature who saved the creatures from the flood incident. Like the hero Noah of the Bible, he has been described as the hero of the time of the flood incident. In Mesopotamian literature, it has also been called ‘Utnapishtim’.
Bronze metal- This metal is made from a mixture of copper and tin. Mesopotamian civilization is considered a Bronze Age civilization i.e. the main metal of this age was ‘bronze’.
Cuneiform or cuneiform- This is a Latin word. Cuneus means ‘peg’ and forma means ‘shape’. The script of Mesopotamia was cuneiform.
Steel- These are stone slabs on which inscriptions are engraved.
Nuclear family- This type of family consists of a man, his wife and children.
Hauz- A covered pit in the ground, in which water and faeces go.
Shaduf- A technique of irrigation, which can be considered equivalent to the ‘Rahat’ irrigation system.
Sumer- The southern region of Mesopotamia was known by this name. The first cities emerged in this region.
Hammurabi Code of Law- It was engraved on a stone slab, so that everyone could know the laws. It is considered to be the oldest code of laws. It was built by King Hammurabi.
Zigurat: The high place of the Zigurat temple on which the shrine was built with baked bricks was called Zigurat. The literal meaning of Zigurat is ‘hill of heaven’.
City-It is called City in English language. It is derived from the Latin word ‘Civitas’. This word was initially used for the developed city states of Greece.
Papyrus-In Egypt, around 3000 BC, writing was done with a reed pen on the leaves of a tree called papyrus. The English word ‘paper’ is derived from this papyrus.
Petsi-The priests of the ancient city-states in Mesopotamia are known by this name.
Chronology helpful in understanding the subject matter
Question 1. Describe the urban life of Mesopotamia.
Answer- An upper class had emerged in the social system of the cities of Mesopotamia. This small class had control over most of the economic resources. The items buried with the kings and queens in their graves or mausoleums in the city of Ur (jewellery, gold vessels, white shells, wooden instruments decorated with lapis lazuli, gold decorative daggers) are clear evidence of this. In this way we can say that there was a huge difference in the means of livelihood of the people here. Various aspects of urban life of Mesopotamia can be understood as follows-
a) Family- Legal documents related to marriage, inheritance etc. show that in the urban society of Mesopotamia, nuclear family was considered ideal. By nuclear family, we mean a family which consists of a man, his wife and children. However, a married son and his family usually lived with his parents. The father was the head of the family. Only his sons had rights over the father’s property.
b) Marriage – In this society, marriage was usually done with the advice of parents. People from the groom’s side used to give some gifts to the bride. After the marriage ceremony was completed, both the families (bride and groom) used to exchange gifts among themselves and after that a community feast was organized. After this, both the families used to go to the temple and offer gifts.
c) Residence- Houses in cities were usually made of bricks, because there was a shortage of stone in Mesopotamia. Bricks were prepared by drying them in the sun. Carpets, curtains, vases, ivory statues and gold ornaments were used to decorate houses. The main door of the house did not open towards anyone else’s house. Perhaps this was done to maintain the privacy of the house. Houses with high thresholds were considered auspicious.
d) Town Planning- The cities of Mesopotamia were not planned. The streets of these cities were narrow, narrow, crooked and winding. The plight of these streets can be estimated from the fact that any heavy goods could be transported to the houses only with the help of donkeys. The drainage system from the houses was also not good. During rainy days, the street water used to enter the houses. Light inside the rooms did not come from the windows, but from the doors that opened into the courtyard. In this way, it can be said that the town planning of these cities was not even of an ordinary level.
e) Dress- People of the rich class used to wear gold ornaments and necklaces of precious stones. People of the upper class used perfume (perfumed substance) on their body clothes. They used to keep a stick in their hand, the upper end of which was decorated with seals. Ordinary men used to wear lungi or tahmad. Their upper body remained naked. The servants and maids working in the house used very simple clothes to cover the lower body below the waist. Poor people generally did not wear anything like slippers on their feet.
f) Religious Beliefs- Like the people of Egypt, the people of Mesopotamia did not believe in the life after death. The priest class of this society also had its share in commercial activities along with religious activities. In true sense their religion was more practical than supernatural. These people believed in Tantra-Mantra. Therefore, to avoid evil spirits, disease, death and famine, they used to worship gods and goddesses, do black magic, use amulets and chant mantras.
g) Education – In the urban society of Mesopotamia, students were taught subjects like astrology, mathematics, religion, physical exercise and medical science. For this purpose, schools and libraries were established near temples. The level of literacy in cities was low, but still the importance of education remained in the society.
h) Burial – There was a cemetery for the city dwellers in Ur, in which the tombs of rulers and common people have been found. Apart from this, some people have also been found buried under the floors of ordinary houses. This gives the impression that the custom of burying the dead bodies was more prevalent in this urban society. On the basis of the above study, it can be said that the urban life of Mesopotamia was flourishing under the patronage of the upper class and the priestly class. There was a complete lack of town planning in the cities.
Question 2. What impact did the art of writing have on human history?
Answer- The art of writing has the most important contribution in making humans civilized and developed. Therefore, the invention of the art of writing is considered a revolutionary event in human history. As a result of this art, it became possible to give agreements, orders and laws the form of documents. In the true sense, this art took human civilization forward. Its contribution in making human history logical, clear and simple cannot be underestimated. The impact of the art of writing on human history can be understood as follows-
a) Cultural Impacts-
Writing has positively influenced the social values and cultural consciousness of humans. This art played an important role in the development of Sumerian and Awaki languages. Literature was created only due to the art of writing. Gilgamesh, the oldest available epic (long poem) of Mesopotamia, is a beautiful example of this. The cuneiform script of Mesopotamia has played a special role in the development of the art of writing. All the languages of the world developed only due to the art of writing.
b) Economic Impacts-
Traditions like stories and tales can be kept alive by telling them to each other orally, but this cannot be done in relation to science and economic subjects. Therefore, the art of writing is very much needed for conducting economic activities. It was the art of writing that gave a new height to commerce and trade. As a result, trade agreements started being given a written form, which increased their credibility. Transparency came in trade by writing on the seals used in trade. The art of writing also proved important in developing foreign trade. The trade between the Indus Civilization and the Mesopotamian Civilization was based on such written seals. Therefore, we can say that economic development was not possible without the art of writing.
C) Social Impact: –
The impact of the art of writing on social life can be understood from this saying of Mesopotamia that, “The one who is adept at writing tablets will shine like the sun.” From this saying, it can be understood how important a person who knew the art of writing must have been in ancient society. This led to the emergence of a scribe class in the society of that time, whose importance was equal to that of priests. This art contributed the most in developing social thinking and social structure. It organized social life through the written orders of the rulers. The work of conveying topics like rights and duties to the general public was also done through this. Its contribution in making laws universal is especially noteworthy. The law code of King Hammurabi of Babylonia is its best example. Its contribution in preserving social customs, traditions and heritage cannot be underestimated.
d) Political Impact –
It was only through the art of writing that the rulers were successful in establishing political and administrative control over their subjects. The rulers got their orders engraved on stones and established them in far-flung areas and conveyed their orders to the general public. As a result of such administrative control, huge empires were established later. Writing played a special role in authenticating the genealogy and reign period of the rulers. It was through this art that the rules of political succession, rules of transfer of power and laws became public. Political writings written on stone slabs are the main pillars of our political studies today.
On the basis of the above study, it can be said that there was no such aspect of human life which was not positively influenced by the art of writing. Writing helps us the most in providing knowledge of all the contemporary aspects of religious rituals, political genealogies, social customs and traditions, literature and language and trade and commerce. Writing first started in Mesopotamia, hence the entire human society will always be indebted to the Mesopotamian civilization for this.
Question 3. Mention the types of cities in Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer- Around 5000 BC, the process of urbanization started in Mesopotamia. In this initial period, settlements first developed in Southern Mesopotamia. Gradually, some of these settlements took the form of ancient cities. These cities were of many types, that is, not all were the same. They had different characteristics in terms of rise and development, which can be understood as follows-
A) Temple Based City –
People coming from outside to Southern Mesopotamia started building or rebuilding temples around their residential area. The initial temples were like a small temple, which was built using unbaked bricks. Gradually, these temples started becoming the abode of various gods and goddesses. Ur (Moon God) and Inanna (Goddess of love and war) are similar examples. These temples, which grew bigger with time, had many rooms built around an open courtyard. Some of the early temples were just like ordinary houses. Such temples were considered to be the abode of gods and goddesses. The only difference between ordinary houses and these temples was that the outer walls of these temples were bent inwards and outwards after certain intervals. The deity was theoretically considered to be the owner of the fields, fishing areas and livestock of the local people. Therefore, the local people brought food grains, curd and fish as gifts for the gods and goddesses. Gradually these temples became centres of faith and people from far-off places started coming and settling near these temples. As a result, business activities started increasing in these places. The chiefs and priests of the local communities provided security to the people by controlling the extortionists. Gradually these people (chiefs and priests) also established their control over local economic activities. With the increase in economic activities, these temples took the form of the main urban institution. The chiefs and priests established themselves as kings (Petsi). By offering precious gifts to the gods, distributing the wealth of the temples, defeating the unruly people, these Petsi kings established their dominance over the local people. They also started keeping an army for the protection of the temples and the local people. In this way, temple-centric cities emerged and developed.
B) Trading Based City
The role of trade activities has always been decisive in the rise and development of cities. Therefore, in Mesopotamia also, some such cities emerged, whose foundation was purely based on trade. Later, due to being the center of trade activities, some cities of Mesopotamia emerged as trade-centric cities. Such cities flourished mainly on the trade routes and the banks of rivers. The city of ‘Mari’ in Mesopotamia is especially noteworthy in this regard. Geographically, it fell in the steppe (grassland area) region on the banks of the Euphrates River. It emerged as the centre point of the trade water route through this region, because trade took place between Sumer in the south and Turkey, Syria and Lebanon in the north through this route. Pastoral communities like Amorites, Assyrians, Armenians and Akkadis lived in this region, who often looted the goods of the traders. An administrative structure was prepared here to provide security to the trade. Later on, this city flourished as the capital of the rulers of the Amorite community on the basis of this administrative structure. The grandeur of this city can be estimated from the fact that a ruler named ‘Jimlim’ lived in a grand palace spread over 2.4 hectares with about 260 rooms. The city of ‘Mari’ was purely a trade-oriented city, because the land around it was also not very fertile.
C) Imperial Based Cities
The process of urbanisation in Mesopotamia, which started with temple-centric and trade-centric cities, was completed by going to power-centric cities. These power-centred cities can also be called royal cities in common language. These were such cities, in whose rise and development, the sharing of ‘power’ was quite important. Such cities were initially under the control of local rulers and later some of these developed as the capitals of big city states. The rulers of these capital cities lived in grand palaces and led a life full of pleasure and luxury. To fulfill the needs of these rulers and in search of good opportunities for themselves, artisans, craftsmen and servants started coming and settling here from far and wide. A huge group of rulers, courtiers, traders, military officers, priests, soldiers etc. had established themselves in these cities, which were completely connected with the sharing of power in some form or the other. These cities were quite huge in terms of size and grandeur.
On the basis of the above study, it can be said that different types of cities emerged and developed in Mesopotamia under different circumstances and at different times. Temple-centric, trade-centric and power-centric cities together took the world’s first urbanisation process to its destination.
Question 4. Throw light on the geographical location of Mesopotamia.
Answer: Modern Iraq and ancient Mesopotamia is a geographically diverse country. Agriculture started in this vegetation region between 7000 and 6000 BC. Lush, undulating plains, tree-covered mountain ranges, comfortable springs and flat rainfall may have helped in this. In ancient times, the valet motorcycle was a good tool for agriculture. From this point of view also, the land of Mesopotamia was quite suitable, because there are steppe grasslands here and there is no shortage of sea fodder. Sheep and goats can easily feed themselves with the small grasses and grass growing here. The tributaries of the Tigris in the east are a good means of water transport. Its southern part is a desert. This is the place where the world’s first city was built and the art of writing developed. The geographical location of Mesopotamia can be estimated as follows-
a) Southern Part – From the geographical point of view, this part of Mesopotamia is the most important, because for the first time in this part, the city was built and the art of writing developed. There were plenty of means of livelihood available in this part. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers played a special role in making this part fertile, because these rivers have been bringing fertile fine soil with them after coming out of the northern mountains. The water that collects in these rivers in the form of floods during the rainy season is taken to the fields for irrigation. This creates fertile soil there, so among all the old civilizations, the agriculture of Southern Mesopotamia used to be the most productive. This was the situation when there was some shortage of rain required for growing crops.
b) Northeast Part – The northeastern part of Mesopotamia is full of lush green trees, high and low plains and tree-covered mountain ranges. There is an immense spread of tall trees on its mountain ranges, due to which the mountain ranges here appear covered from above. There is sufficient rainfall in this area, due to which there is no shortage of clean springs and wild fruits, flowers and vegetation here. Since this area is located at a high altitude, there is no danger of floods here. Naturally, this is a completely suitable place for rearing sheep and goats. Due to good rainfall, the crop here is also good. Apart from this, date palms bear a lot of fruits (dates) in summer.
c) Northern Part- The northern part of Mesopotamia is spread in the form of high land, which is completely surrounded by ‘steppe’ (grassland). In this area, animal husbandry is a better means of livelihood than farming. Sheep and goats can easily fill their stomachs with the vegetation and grass growing here. A large amount of meat, milk and wool etc. were obtained from these sheep and goats. Apart from this, fish were also found in sufficient quantity in the rivers flowing here. After the winter rains, this entire area became green.
d) Tigris and Euphrates Rivers- As we know, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is called Mesopotamia. In fact, both these rivers were the lifelines of the people here. In the east, the tributaries of Tigris provide water transport to reach the mountainous regions of Iran. This route made the trade of Mesopotamia quite prosperous. After entering the desert, the Euphrates river starts flowing by dividing into many streams or branches. In flood-like situations, these streams used to act as canals, through which the fields were irrigated. With this type of irrigation, when required, wheat, barley, peas and lentil fields were irrigated. On the basis of the above study, it can be said that the geographical area of Mesopotamia is actually full of diversity. In this different area, the presence of grasslands, tall trees, vegetation, mountain ranges, deserts and rivers makes it geographically diverse.
Question 5. Mentioning the development of the writing system, throw light on the writing system of Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer- Humans developed language or dialect long ago as part of evolution. All societies have their own language, in which pronounced sounds express their meaning. From the linguistic point of view, this is called verbal or literal expression. By writing or script, we mean pronounced sounds presented in the form of signs or symbols. When these pronounced sounds started being given the form of signs, it is considered the beginning of the writing system. Initially, it was accepted only as the written form of language. In the special context of Mesopotamia, the gradual development of the writing system can be understood as follows-
a) Origin of Writing – In the very beginning of the art of writing, primitive man used to take the help of painting to express his feelings. This painting is accepted as the initial form of writing and language. In this period, man used to draw a picture of an object or animal to make people understand it. Most historians and scholars consider those cave paintings and artifacts made by primitive man as the initial form of language and writing. The beginning of systematic picture writing is considered to be from Sumer, the southern city-state of Mesopotamia. Its proof is those tablets obtained from Mesopotamia, which are about 3200 BC. About 5000 lists of bulls, fish and breads etc. have been found on these tablets. These tablets were made of clay and were baked in fire. The signs found on these tablets give the impression that perhaps these must have been the items coming and going in the temples of the southern city of Uruk. When the society needed to keep a permanent account of its transactions, then systematic and clear writing started.
b) Technique of Earlier Writing- The initial writing was done on the leaves and bark of trees and on the skins of animals etc. In 3000 BC, writings written with a reed pen on the leaves of a tree called papyrus in Egypt are evidence of this. Later on, ‘paper’ was made from this ‘papyrus’, which means ‘paper’. The writing style of the southern city-state of Mesopotamia was completely different and effective from the above style. The people here used to write on clay tablets. These people used to knead clay and prepare a strip of such a size that the scribe (writer) could easily hold in one hand. After this, the scribe used to engrave symbols or letters on the wet strip with the sharp tip of a reed stick on its smooth upper surface. These were dried in the sun and given a strong form. Once dried, nothing could be written on this strip. New tablets were required for new work. Hence, we have found hundreds of tablets from the excavation sites of Mesopotamia.
c) Cuneiform – This art of printing symbols by pressing or engraving on wet or moist tablets
Later on, it developed into ‘cuneiform’ script. Cuneiform is made up of two words of Latin language ‘cuneus’ and ‘forma’. ‘Cuneus’ means peg and ‘forma’ means shape. This script also started with pictures and symbols. The pictures or symbols inscribed on the tablets usually indicated those things which were used in ordinary transactions. But this type of script could not fully express the thoughts. To overcome this deficiency, around 2600 BC, the people of Sumer, the southern city-state of Mesopotamia, developed a script consisting of special characters, through which thoughts and feelings could be easily understood. This script had about 550 characters and it was very important for every scribe to have at least 300 years of knowledge. This is the reason why such scribes were often professionals. Therefore, this saying was popular in Mesopotamia that, “The one who is proficient in writing tablets will shine like the sun.”
On the basis of the above study, it can be said that the cuneiform script of Mesopotamia has special importance in the development of the writing system. This script is the oldest known script of West Asia.
Question 6. Throw light on the reasons that helped in the rise and development of cities in the Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer- The rise and development of cities in the Mesopotamian civilization was the result of far-reaching changes. The social system, political organization, administrative system, code of laws, religious system, writing system and geographical location etc. that emerged with time, all together prepared the framework for the rise and development of cities. In fact, cities have been a symbol of a more civilized life based on specialization than villages and towns. The various reasons that helped in the rise and development of cities in Mesopotamian civilization can be understood as follows-
a) Geographical Conditions – In Mesopotamia, the development of villages to towns and then towns to cities happened under certain special circumstances. The land of this region situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was fertile and the availability of adequate irrigation made it even more useful.
The waterways that emerged made trade particularly progressive. The climate and vegetation conducive to agriculture and animal husbandry contributed significantly in making it economically prosperous. The naturally available forest wealth also contributed significantly in the rise and development of cities. The steppe grasslands gave the form of business to animal husbandry.
b) Development of Agriculture – In ancient times, the role of agriculture was decisive in the rise and development of cities. From this point of view, the southern region of Mesopotamia, i.e. Sumer, had made a lot of progress. Therefore, cities first arose in this region. The ruling class took special interest in the development of agriculture. As a result, there was a good system of irrigation for farming. The practice of harnessing oxen to ploughs had begun. As a result of all this, there was an increase in additional production, which started being sold at nearby trading places. In this way, the development of agriculture created the infrastructure for the rise of cities in Mesopotamia.
c) Technological Development- Technology has played a special role in the rise and development of cities. Humans are considered different from other living beings because they are capable of making tools. There is an ancient saying that “History changes when tools are changed.” This saying is fully applicable to the rise and development of Mesopotamian cities. There were many technological changes in both agricultural and non-agricultural work here. The use of bullocks for ploughing in agriculture and the use of wheel for making utensils are some such examples. Such technological inventions encouraged commercial and other economic activities. Therefore, we can say that technological development played a very important role in the rise and development of cities in Mesopotamia.
d) Industries- The people of Mesopotamia knew how to make bronze and were well acquainted with gold, silver and glass. Chariot making was their main industry, the work of making furniture etc. was also popular here. Carpenters, blacksmiths and weavers etc. were all very skilled in their work. They used to make different types of statues and weapons by beating copper. Gradually the production of these industrial works increased. Later on, these people established themselves in specific areas. Therefore, it can be said that the initial small industries based on agriculture and metal also contributed positively to the process of initial urbanization.
e) Trade- Sumer was the main center of trade in Mesopotamia. Therefore, the first cities in Mesopotamia arose in this region. From here, cloth, luxury goods and dates etc. were exported to other countries. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers and their streams provided easy and convenient waterways to the people here. Foreign trade was mainly done through waterways. Trade was mostly in the hands of temple priests, traders and merchants. In the past, their trade centers extended up to the Indus Valley and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, it can be said that the progress of trade also contributed to the rise and development of cities.
f) Occupational Efficiency – We have read that a situation of surplus production had arrived in agriculture in Mesopotamia. Here agricultural production was more than the requirement. In such a situation, many people started getting free from agricultural work. Now they had the opportunity to take up any independent occupation. Taking advantage of this opportunity, they adopted different occupations and gained expertise in them. This strengthened the concept of division of labour and specialisation of occupation took place. Later, this thing helped in the rise and development of cities.
g) Religion – The initial cities that emerged in Mesopotamia were religion-centric cities. The temples located in the cities of Sumer emerged as centres of economic activities along with religious activities. People involved in various types of economic activities started coming and living around these temples. The priests of the temples provided them security. Later, these priests came to be known as Petsi kings. In this way we can say that religion and faith also contributed to the rise and development of cities.
On the basis of the above study, it can be said that the rise and development of cities in Mesopotamia did not happen due to any one factor, rather all the above reasons were equally responsible for it.
Question 8. The validity of the principle “The world will always remain indebted to the Mesopotamian civilization for chronology, mathematics, building construction and writing” will be proved.
or
The present world was highlighted in the field of Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer- The world has been destroyed in the field of chronology, mathematics, writing and building construction of Mesopotamian civilization. They made a special contribution by inventing a special type of script (Kilakar) and in the creation of language literature. They also introduced their unique talent in knowledge-science, mathematics and architecture. The knowledge consolidated from this civilization has an important contribution in the development of modern world civilization. In this context, the den of Mesopotamia can be understood as follows-
a) Writing – The writing system of Mesopotamia is considered to be the most important. The scientific method has a special contribution to the ancient ancient knowledge till the next creation. The people of Mesopotamia invented a script for the first time in the world, which was called ‘Kilakar’. Therefore, this script is considered to be the biggest gift of Mesopotamian civilization. As a result of the invention of this manuscript, schools emerged in different parts of the world. Along with language education, literature was also taught through it.
It is considered to be the greatest gift of civilization. As a result of the invention of this script, schools emerged in different parts of the world. This led to the development of literature along with language and education. Initially, the script of this civilization had 350 symbols, which gradually got modified and decreased and finally got reduced to 41 letters.
b) Mathematics- The people here had made a lot of progress in the field of mathematics. These people had knowledge of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, square root and cube root. Like today, they used to divide a circle into 360 degrees. Their correct knowledge later became famous as the Pythagoras theorem. On the basis of the number 60 adopted by the people here, later on, the unit of 60 minutes of an hour and 60 seconds of a minute started in the calculation of time. We get to know about all these mathematical achievements from some tablets found before 1800 BC. These people used ‘mina’ as a unit of weight, which was considered equal to 60 shekels. The present world will always be indebted to them for their mathematical achievements.
c) Time Calculation – The needs of agriculture gave birth to many sciences among these people. Among these sciences, the people of Mesopotamia had also acquired the knowledge of time calculation. Going beyond the concept of day and night, they created months on the basis of the moon and discovered the solar year. They made a rule to calculate an additional month to eliminate the difference between the lunar calendar and the solar calendar. They also knew the difference between constellations and planets. They divided the sky into 12 different parts and named them. These names are still in use today. Their lunar calendar had 12 months, four weeks and a week had 7 days. A day was divided into 24 hours and an hour into 60 minutes. This method of calculating time is still prevalent almost equally. Therefore, the chronology of Mesopotamia is an important contribution to the world.
d) Building construction (Architecture)- The architects here knew how to use pillars and arches. Arches of 3000 BC have been found in the excavation of the city of Nippur. Plaster was applied on the walls inside the buildings. There was a large hall-like room in the middle of the buildings. But their art of making arches (haat) is considered to be the most unique. The buildings made from these arches were beautiful and strong. Later on, this architecture of making arches became quite popular.
On the basis of the above study, it can be said that the civilization of Mesopotamia was one of the greatest civilizations of the ancient world. The concept of development of cities and city-states is their contribution to the ancient world. They taught the world to walk on the path of intellectual progress by inventing the oldest ‘cuneiform’ script. They strengthened the society legally by creating law codes. He was also the first inventor of the arch, dome, pillar and potter’s wheel. Ultimately it can be said that the present world will always remain indebted to him for his contribution.
Short Answer Questions
Question 1. Write a brief comment on the geographical division of Mesopotamia and the language of the particular region.
Answer- In the early period of recorded history, the various aspects of the geographical division of this region and the language related to it are as follows-
(1) The southern part of Mesopotamia was mainly called Sumer and Akkad.
(2) After 2000 BC, when the city of Babylon developed, the southern part of Mesopotamia came to be called Babylonia.
(3) In 1100 BC, the Assyrians established their kingdom in the northern part of Mesopotamia. After this, this region came to be known as Assyria.
(4) Sumerian language was dominant in the initial phase of civilization, but around 2400 BC this language was replaced by Akkadian language. This language continued to flourish till the time of Alexander’s invasion (336-323 BC).
(5) Aramaic language entered around 1400 BC. This language was similar to Hebrew and around 1000 BC this language became dominant in most of the area. This language is still spoken in some parts of Iraq.
Question 2. How is ‘division of labour’ a characteristic of urban life?
Answer-When economic activities start increasing in an economy, the population density starts increasing at that place, people find it convenient to live there, then towns are built. Later on these towns take the form of cities. Apart from food production, trade, production and different types of other services also play a useful role in the urban economy. From this point of view, the people of the cities cannot be self-sufficient. They have to depend on the villagers for their production or other services. There is a continuous exchange of goods between them. For example, the person who makes bronze tools does not go out himself to get metals like copper or tin. Other people provide him coal as fuel. Similarly, the artisan who makes stone statues is also provided tools and stones by other people. The expertise of the artisan is limited to carving only. He is not much connected with the trade of the related goods. Therefore, we can say that division of labour is a basic necessity of urban life.
Question 3. What do you know about the import-export of the Mesopotamian people?
Answer: Mesopotamia was quite rich in terms of food items, but there was a lack of mineral resources. Therefore, they had to get them from other areas and had to give them some of their goods in return. The various aspects of import-export of Mesopotamia can be understood in the following manner-
(1) The people of this civilization had to import good stones from outside to make seals, ornaments and tools, because they lacked such stones here.
(2) They also had to import good wood from outside to make carts and their wheels and boats. The date palm and poplar wood which they had here was not suitable for this work.
(3) Metals also had to be imported to make tools, utensils and ornaments.
(4) Probably they imported gold, silver, copper, tin, shells and wood and various types of stones from Turkey and Iran.
(5) To obtain the above things, they exported their cloth and agricultural products in large quantities.
Question 4. What was the importance of waterways in the movement of goods in the cities of Mesopotamia?
Answer: For urban development, it is considered very important to have a cheap, simple and easy transport system. It is not easy to carry heavy goods here and there in bullock carts or on the backs of animals. This type of movement takes more time and the cost of maintaining animals is also high. In true sense, the burden of urban economy cannot be borne by such means of transport. Therefore, the cheapest and best means of transport is waterways. Through such waterways, even the heaviest goods can be easily sent from one place to another without any expense. Boats loaded with heavy goods move automatically with the flow of the river or the speed of the wind. From this point of view, the canals and natural water streams of ancient Mesopotamia were the best means of movement of goods between small and big settlements. It was through these canals and natural water streams that the people of Mesopotamia conducted local and foreign trade. From the point of view of waterways, the ‘Euphrates’ river of Mesopotamia had gained fame as the ‘world route’. Therefore, we can say that waterways had special importance in the movement of goods in the cities of Mesopotamia.
Question 5. Explain the sculpture of Mesopotamia with examples.
Answer: Mesopotamian civilization was great even from the point of view of art. The statue of a woman’s head found from its city Urak is a clear proof of this. It is of about 3000 BC. On studying this statue in depth, we come to know the following things about the sculpture of Mesopotamia-
(1) The head of the woman seen in this statue has been carved out of white marble.
(2) Blue lapis lazuli, white shell and black tar must have been inlaid in its eyes and eyebrows respectively.
(3) There is a groove on the forehead of this statue, perhaps it must have been made to wear jewelry.
(4) The delicate and beautiful structure of its face, lips, chin and cheeks is worth seeing.
(5) Hard stone has been used to make this statue. This type of stone was not available in Mesopotamia. Therefore, it must have been brought from outside.
(6) This is a world-famous specimen of sculpture. The above-mentioned features of this sculpture can be considered to be the features of Mesopotamian sculpture.
Question 6. Explain with examples the process of construction of ziggurat in Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer- In Mesopotamian civilization, ziggurat (temple) had special importance in temple city-states. Their importance can be gauged from the fact that the residence of their priest king was in them. A lot of labour and resources were required to build them. This can be easily understood from the construction process of a temple (ziggurat) in the city of Uruk. Uruk was a temple-centred state and around 2800 BC it was spread over an area of 400 hectares. For its security, a strong rampart was built around it. Prisoners of war and local people were compulsorily required to do temple related work. They may not have to pay agricultural tax, but they had to work in these temples. Instead of salary, grains were allotted for work. To build a temple in this city, 1500 people worked for 10 hours a day for about five years. Digging stones for the temple, bringing metals and minerals, preparing bricks from clay and placing them in the temple and bringing necessary materials for the temple from outside were some of the works that common people had to do. Hundreds of people were engaged in making cones of clay, filling them with color and then placing them on the walls. The work of making statues from stones brought from outside and placing them in temples was also done under the supervision of the ruler.
Question 7. Why was the palace of Jimrilim in Mari special?
Answer-1810-1760 BC. The palace of King Jimrilim in the city-state of Mari was special for many reasons, which can be understood as follows-
(1) This huge palace was the residence of the royal family. This palace was also the center of administration.
(2) Jewelleries of precious metals were also manufactured in the workshop of this palace.
(3) A large quantity of bread, meat, fish, fruits, wine and beer were served on the king’s dining table every day. From this, its grandeur can be easily estimated.
(4) The king used to eat sitting on the courtyard studded with white stones. His companions also used to eat with him.
(5) The entrance of the palace, the huge open courtyard were decorated with beautiful stones. People used to come from far and wide to see it.
(6) This palace was spread over an area of about 2.4 hectares and had 260 rooms.
Question 8. Explain the statement “The city of Mari was unique in terms of trade and prosperity.”
Answer-The commercial prosperity of Mari city can be understood in the following ways- Answer-
(1) This city was situated at a very important trading place, from where a lot of import and export took place.
(2) From here, trade was done with far-flung areas like southern parts, Turkey, Syria and Lebanon through the Euphrates river.
(3) Cargo ships coming from southern cities also used to stop here. In return, 10 percent tax of the total value of goods was collected from them.
(4) This city also had trade control over the trade of copper and tin from the island of Cyprus ‘Alashiya’.
(5) Mari cities prospered on the strength of trade. It is a good example of urban centre. On the basis of the above study, it can be said that Mari city of Mesopotamia was unique in terms of trade and prosperity.
Question 9. Briefly throw light on the main features of the city of Babylon.
Answer- Babylonia was freed from Assyrian domination by the brave ruler Nabopolassar in 625 BC. He and his successors had made Babylon a major city of the world by 331 BC (Alexander’s invasion). The main features of this city can be understood as follows-
(1) This city was spread over an area of more than 850 hectares.
(2) Its boundary wall was triple and it had large palaces and temples.
(3) It also had a ziggurat i.e. stepped tower and a wide road was built to reach its main shrine.
(4) Its business houses were themselves interested in trade and carried out their business far and wide.
(5) The mathematicians and astronomers here had made many new discoveries, which are their greatest contribution for the times to come.
Question 10. Write a brief comment on the religious life of Mesopotamia.
Answer-The people of Mesopotamia believed in many gods and goddesses. Prominent among them were Shamash (Sun God), Ur (Moon God), Inanna (Goddess of love and war), Anu (God of the sky), Enlil (God of the wind) etc. The inhabitants of Babylon especially worshipped a god named ‘Marduk’ and the people of Assyria worshipped a god named ‘Assur’. Every city of this civilization had a main temple. The god there was considered the protector of the city. A temple for the patron god of the city was built in the ‘sacred area’ of the city on a hill or a platform made of bricks, which was called ‘Ziggurat’. People used to sacrifice animals like sheep and goats etc. to please the gods. Their worship was selfish. There was a lack of devotion in it. They believed that material happiness can be achieved only by keeping the gods and goddesses happy. They were superstitious and believed a lot in witchcraft and ghosts. They considered floods, famines and epidemics as the wrath of the gods. The people of this civilization were more concerned about this world than the afterlife. They believed that the afterlife is a place of darkness and famine, where only soil is available to fill the stomach.
Question 11. What was the status of women in Mesopotamian society?
Answer- The status of women was respectable in this society. The woman had the right over the property obtained through dowry. The man could take over that property as per his wish. In the absence of husband and son, the woman was also considered to have a right over the family property. The wife had the right to do business independently of her husband and also to keep slaves. On the contrary, there were some restrictions on women in the society. She was expected to produce many children for her husband. She could also be divorced in case of infertility. There was a provision for giving death penalty to an adulterous woman. Devdasi system was also prevalent, that is, beautiful young women were offered as gifts to serve the gods in temples. When a girl from the family was dedicated to the temple, a celebration was held in the family. On this occasion, the dowry given at the time of the girl’s marriage was gifted to her.
Very short answer type questions
Question 1. Write a brief note on Mesopotamia.
Answer- This region situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is currently a part of the Republic of Iraq. Urban life also started from this region. This civilization is famous all over the world for its prosperity, wealth, urban life, writing system, vast and rich literature, mathematics and astronomy.
Question 2. How did the regional spread of the writing system and literature of Mesopotamia take place?
Answer- After 2000 BC, the writing system and literature of this civilization spread to the eastern Mediterranean regions, northern Syria, Turkey and Egypt. The language and script of this civilization became common in these regions.
Question 3. Which were the main centers of Mesopotamian civilization?
Answer- The region of this civilization was not limited only to the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers but extended till the south of the Persian Gulf. This region can be divided into three regions. First- the area between Tigris and Euphrates (Doab) which is called Syria, second- the area near the confluence is Akkad and third- Sumer.
Question 4. Write the names of the civilizations that come under Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer- In the three regions of Mesopotamia (Syria, Akkad and Sumer), four civilizations developed in ancient times, which are known as Assyrian, Chaldean, Babylonian and Sumerian. Among these civilizations, the ‘Sumerian’ civilization developed first.
Question 5. Write a brief note on the language development in Mesopotamian civilization.
Answer- The first known language of this civilization was Sumerian. In 2400 BC, this language was replaced by Akkadi language. This language continued to flourish with some changes till the time of Alexander (336-323 BC). 1400 BC In 1000 BC, Aramaic language similar to Hebrew language entered this region and after 1000 BC it started being widely spoken. Even today it is spoken in some parts of Iraq.
Question 6. Why was Mesopotamia important for Europeans?
Answer- Mesopotamia was very important for Europeans for two reasons-
(i) In the first part of the Bible, ‘Old Testament’, its city ‘Shimar’ i.e. ‘Sumer’ is mentioned and it is described as a city made of bricks.
(ii) European travelers and scholars considered Mesopotamia as the land of their ancestors.
Question 7. What is the subject matter of ‘Flood’ given in the Bible?
Answer- According to the Bible, the incident of ‘Flood’ was going to destroy all life on earth. But God chose a man named ‘Noah’ to protect life on earth. Noah kept one pair of each animal on a huge boat and saved them safely from the flood. Apart from these, everything else was destroyed in it.
Question 8. Was the Mesopotamian civilization a Bronze Age civilization?
Answer- The construction of ancient cities in Mesopotamia began in 3000 BC. This period is called the Bronze Age in history. Bronze is made from a mixture of copper and tin. This metal has been used in most of the tools, utensils and ornaments obtained from Mesopotamia. Therefore, this civilization is called a Bronze Age civilization.
Question 9. What do you mean by the concept of division of labor?
Answer- Apart from food production, trade, production and various types of services play an important role in the urban economy. A single person cannot be self-sufficient in this matter. Therefore, he has to depend on the services of different people for this. This type of division of work is called division of labour. Urban life is based on this concept.
Question 10. What was the condition of mineral resources in Mesopotamia?
Answer-There was a lack of mineral resources in this civilization. In its southern part, there was a shortage of stones for making tools, seals and ornaments. Apart from this, there was also a lack of good wood to make strong boats. Metal was also not available there for making tools, utensils and ornaments. They used to import wood, copper, tin, silver, gold, shells and stones from outside.
Question 11. Under what circumstances did the writing work begin?
Answer-When the society of that time needed to keep a permanent account of transactions, then perhaps the writing work began. This was important because in urban life, transactions were done at different times and by different people. Therefore, the writing work began for its accounting.
Question 12. What do you know about the oldest tablets of Mesopotamia?
Answer- The oldest tablets found from Mesopotamia are of about 3200 BC. These have pictures like symbols and numbers on them. About 5000 such tablets have been found, on which there are marks of bulls, fishes and breads. These are made of clay and baked in the sun. The height of each tablet is 3.5 cm or less.
Question 13. Why was great skill required for writing work?
Answer- During the Mesopotamian civilization, it was not at all easy to present the sounds of a particular language in a visual form. This required sharp intelligence. Very few people were able to do this. Therefore, at that time a saying was popular in Mesopotamia, “The one who will be proficient in the writing system will shine like the sun.”
Question 14. According to the Mesopotamian epic, how did the writing of tablets begin?
Answer- According to the epic, the ancient ruler of Uruk, Enmerkar, sent a messenger with his message to the chief of Aratta, but he mixed up the king’s messages. Then King Enmerkar made a clay tablet with his own hands and wrote words on it. At that time, there was no custom of writing words on clay. According to the epic, this is how the practice of writing tablets began.
Question 15. What was the form of the early temples in Mesopotamia?
Answer- Around 5000 BC, settlements started developing in southern Mesopotamia. Some of them took the form of cities. At the same time, the practice of building temples with unbaked bricks began. The first known temple is like a small temple. The deity was the center of worship. People used to offer food, curd and fish to the gods.
Question 16. How was the manufacture of wheel important for the urban economy?
Answer-Probably the art of making utensils on the wheel was developed during the period of Mesopotamian civilization. It proved to be very useful for the urban economy. With the construction of this wheel, the efficiency of the potter increased a lot as compared to earlier. Now he could easily make dozens of similar utensils on a large scale.
Question 17. How was the marriage ceremony performed in Mesopotamian society?
Answer-After the wish of the groom, the parents of the bride would give their consent for the marriage. Gifts were given to the bride’s side by the groom’s side. After this, both the families (bride and groom) would sit together and have food. After offering gifts in the temple, the bride’s mother-in-law would come to take her. In this way, the marriage ceremony was performed at that time.
Question 18. What kind of omens and bad omens related to architecture were prevalent in Mesopotamian society?
Answer-These matters related to good and bad omens can be understood in the following manner-
(i) Wealth comes to the house which has a high threshold.
(ii) If the front door does not open towards someone else’s house, it brings good luck.
(iii) If the main door of the house opens towards outside rather than inside, then the wife will become the cause of torture for her husband.
Question 19. What was the burial system of Mesopotamia?
Answer- The characteristics of the burial system of Mesopotamia are as follows-
(i) Ur had a cemetery for the city dwellers, in which rulers and common people were buried.
(ii) Some bodies have also been found buried under the floor of ordinary houses.
Question 20. What was the form of ‘Mari’ before it became a Mesopotamian city?
Answer-Mari is located on the upstream of the Euphrates River. In this area, agriculture and animal husbandry were done simultaneously. Most of this area was used for grazing sheep and goats. When the cattle herders here needed any external goods, they used to get those things in exchange for their animals and their cheese, leather and meat etc. This Mari flourished as a royal capital after 2000 BC.
Question 21. What was the most common reason for quarrels between the farmers of Mari and the nomadic shepherds?
They often quarreled over the following things:
Answer:
(i) The nomadic shepherds would take their sheep and goats through the sown fields of the farmers. This would damage the crops of the farmers.
(ii) Many times the nomadic shepherds would attack the villages of the farmers and loot their collected goods.
Question 22. Did nomadic communities exist in the Mesopotamian civilization?
Answer: In the mainland region (southern) of Mesopotamia, groups of nomadic communities would come from the western desert. These groups would come in the form of shepherds, laborers and mercenaries. These nomadic people belonged to the Akkadian, Amorite, Assyrian and Armenian castes. Some of them had even established their own rule.
Question 23. Why do you think that the old temples must have been like houses?
Answer-The following are the reasons for thinking so-
(i) The size of the old temples is very small and their structure is also like houses.
(ii) They (temples) were also built with unbaked bricks like houses.
(iii) They also had a courtyard like houses, around which verandahs and rooms were built.
Question 24. How did the word ‘paper’ originate?
Answer-Initial writing was done on the leaves of trees or on their bark. In Egypt, around 3000 BC, writing was done on the leaves of a tree called ‘papyrus’ with the help of a reed. Later on, the English word ‘paper’ was formed from this papyrus. The Hindi word ‘kaagaz’ is a modified word of this.
Question 25. Had the concept of nuclear family developed in the Mesopotamian society?
The concept of nuclear family was fully developed in post-Mesopotamia. Legal documents of that time show that the nuclear family was considered the ideal family. This type of family consisted of a man, his wife and their children. The head of the family was the father.
Multiple Choice Questions
QI. The oldest known language of Mesopotamia was-
(A) Akkadi (B) Aramaic (C) Hebrew (D) Sumerian
Answer- (D) Sumerian
Q2. Mesopotamian civilization was-
(A) Copper Age (B) Bronze Age (C) Iron Age (D) All of the above
Answer- (B) Bronze Age
Q3. Urban life started in-
(A) Mesopotamia (B) Harappa (C) Mohenjodaro (D) Egypt
Answer- (A) Mesopotamia
Q4. The area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is currently a part of-
(A) Iran (B) Egypt (C) Iraq (D) None of these
Answer- (C) Iraq
Q5. Mesopotamian civilization is famous for-
(A) Urban life (B) Writing system (C) Astronomy (D) All of the above
Answer- (D) All of the above
Q6. The name Mesopotamia is made up of the combination of words of the following languages-
(A) Greek (B) Arabic (C) Persian (D) English
Answer- (A) Greek
Q7. ‘Old Testament’ is a part of the following religious text-
(A) Gita (B) Quran (C) Bible (D) Jethuit
Answer- (C) Bible
Q8. When did Akkadian language take over from Sumerian language?
(A) In 2400 BC (B) In 3200 BC
(C) In 5200 BC (D) None of these
Answer- (A) In 2400 BC
Q9. In which part of Mesopotamia did cities emerge first?
(A) Southern part in Babylon (B) Southern part in Akkad
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) Southern part in Sumer
Answer- (D) Southern part in Sumer
Q10. Regions related to southern part of Mesopotamia-
(A) Sumer (B) Akkad (C) Babylon (D) All of the above
Answer- (D) All of the above
Q11. The civilization related to the southern part of Mesopotamia was-
(A) Sumer (B) Babylonia (C) (A) and (B) both (D) none of these
Answer- (C) (A) and (B) both
Q12. In which part of Mesopotamia did the Assyrians establish their kingdom?
(A) North (B) East (C) South (D) West
Answer- (A) North
Q13. According to Wible, which man did God choose to save the world from the flood?
(A) Noah (C) Kauna (B) Seva (D) none of these
Answer- (A) Noah
Q14. In the traditional literature of Mesopotamia, who is described as the hero of the flood incident?
(A) Ziusudra (B) Noah (C) Seva (D) None of these
Answer- (A) Ziusudra
Q15. Which part of Mesopotamia was a desert but was still very fertile?
(A) Northern (B) Eastern (C) Southern (D) Western
Answer- (C) Southern
Q16. The cities and writing system first emerged in the following part of Mesopotamia-
(A) Eastern (B) Southern (C) Northern (D) Western
Answer- (B) Southern
Q17. Bronze metal was prepared by mixing the following-
(A) Copper and tin (B) Copper and iron
(C) Iron and tin (D) None of these
Answer- (A) Copper and tin
Q18. The trade of Mesopotamia was mainly done through the following routes-
(A) Waterways (B) Land routes
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
Answer- (A) Waterways
Q19. The earliest tablets of Mesopotamia date back to how many years B.C.?
(A) 5400 (B) 3600 (C) 4800 (D) 3200
Answer- (D) 3200
Q20. Nomadic people belonged to the following caste-
(A) Akkadians (B) Amorites and Assyrians
(C) Armenians (D) All of the above
Answer- (D) All of the above
Q21. The kings of the city-state of Mari belonged to the following community-
(A) Akkadi (B) Amorite (C) Sumerian (D) Assyrian
Answer- (B) Amorite
Q22. The following symbols or signs have been found on Mesopotamian tablets-
(A) Fish (B) Boat (C) Bull (D) All of the above
Answer- (D) All of the above
Q23. The people of Mesopotamia used to write-
(A) On palm leaves (B) On papyrus leaves
(C) On tablets (D) All of the above
Answer- (C) On tablets
Q24. Cuneiform is a word of the following language-
(A) Greek (B) Latin (C) Hebrew (D) Sumerian
Answer- (B) Latin
Q25. The oldest known temple of Mesopotamia is-
(A) 2400 BC (B) 3200 BC
(C) 2800 BC (D) 5000 BC
Answer- (D) 5000 BC
Q26. Development of settlements in Mesopotamia started in-
(A) 5000 BC (B) 2400 BC
(C) 3600 BC (D) 4200 BC
Answer- (A) 5000 BC of
Q27. The god of the ‘Steppe’ region was-
(A) Ur (B) Ulus (C) Inanna (D) Dragon
Answer- (D) Dragon
Q28. The people of Mesopotamia imported the following item from the island of ‘Alashiya’-
(A) Copper (B) Tin (C) Both (A) and (B) (D) Iron
Answer- (C) Both (A) and (B)
Q29. The epic ‘Gilgamesh’ is related to-
(A) Harappan civilization (B) Mesopotamian civilization
(C) Egyptian civilization (D) Greek civilization
Answer- (B) Mesopotamian civilization
Q30. 2800 B.C. The area of Uruk city around 2000 BC was-
(A) 200 hectares (B) 250 hectares
(C) 300 hectares (D) 400 hectares
Answer- (D) 400 hectares
Q31. The hero of Gilgamesh epic was the ruler of the following city-state-
(A) Alashiya (B) Mari (C) Uruk (D) None of these
Answer- (C) Uruk
Q32. Stone slabs on which inscriptions were engraved were called-
(A) Stele (B) Fleeker (C) Stone (D) Reed
Answer- (A) Stele
Q33. When did the city of Mari emerge as a royal capital?
(A) After 1500 BC (B) After 720 BC
(C) After 1000 BC (D) 2000 BC After
Answer- (D) After 2000 B.C.
Q34. Where did the last Assyrian ruler Asurvanipal (668-627 BC) establish a huge library?
(A) In Nineveh (B) In Kalsat (C) In Sahtar (D) None of these
Answer- (A) In Nineveh
Q35. The last ruler of independent Babylon was-
(A) Alexander (B) Nabonidus (C) Nabopolassar (D) None of these
Answer- (B) Navonidus
Q36. The script of Sumerian language was-
(A) Cuneiform (B) Aramaic (C) Hebrew (D) Akkadi
(C) (A) and (B) both
Answer- (A) Cuneiform
Q37. The following city became a sea city on the strength of trade-
(A) Mari (B) Toktan (C) Uruk (D) All of the above
Answer- (A) Mari
Q38. The goddess of love and war was-
(A) Illana (B) Inanna (C) Ullena (D) Kallena
Answer- (B) Inanna
Q39. The moon god in Mesopotamian civilization was-
(A) Ulus (B) Ur (C) Innus (D) Shamash
Answer- (B) Ur
Q40. The people of Mesopotamia used to offer the following gifts to their gods-
(A) Fish (B) Curd (C) Food (D) All of the above
Answer- (D) All of the above
- The literal meaning of Babylonia-
(A) Murtdwar (B) Komaldwar (C) (A) and (B) both (D) Devdwar
Answer- (D) Devdwar
Q42. The following calendar was in vogue in Sumerian civilization-
(A) Chandra Panchang (B) Surya Panchang
(C) (A) and (B) both (D) None of the above
Answer- (A) Chandra Panchang
Q43. The use of iron started in Mesopotamia-
(A) 2300 BC (B) 1000 BC
(C) 3200 BC (D) 2800 BC
Answer- (B) 1000 BC
Q44. Which of the following cities is not related to Mesopotamia?
(A) Ur (B) Mari (C) Kalibangan (D) Petsi
Answer- (D) Petsi
Important Points
>The literal meaning of Mesopotamia is the area between two rivers.
>The area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers of ancient Iraq was called Mesopotamia.
>In this region of the Bronze Age, Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Chaldean civilizations developed.
>The first civilization to develop in this region was the Sumerian civilization.
>Sumerian civilization was a city-state civilization, whose major cities were Ur, Eridu, Urak, Lagash and Nippur etc.
>Prof. Shriram Goyal has considered Sumerian civilization as the ‘father of the civilizations of Western Asia’.
>The excavation of the city of ‘Ur’ done by Prof. Woolley of the Anglo-American expedition team in 1929 AD throws important light on Sumerian civilization.
>The famous scholar Gordon Childe has named the urban settlements that developed in South Mesopotamia in 3200-3100 BC as ‘urban revolution’.
>In the sequence of the Bronze Age civilization of Mesopotamia, the period from 5000 to 2350 BC is considered as the pre-dynastic period. During this period, there was mutual conflict between the city states of Ur, Urak, Kish, Lagash, etc.
>Lugal Jageshi was a famous ruler who conquered Ur and Urak and made Erak his capital.
>Sargon transformed the Akkadian city-state into the Akkadian Empire.
>The map of a large complex in the documents of Sargon’s reign has a place among the oldest maps of the world. This map was found from the excavation of the city of Gasur.
>The third dynasty of Ur collapsed in 2000 BC.
>Bronze Age Sumeria was divided into many small political units, which were called ‘city-states’.
>The city states were governed by the parliament of citizens.
>Dr. Shriram Goyal has described the Sumerian institutions as the oldest public assemblies of the world.
>Petsi or Ensi was the head of the city state as the ‘representative of the god’ while the king was called ‘Lugal’.
>The law code of Shulgi or Dhungi is considered to be the oldest law code of the world, on the basis of which Hamburavi prepared his law code.
>Temples were important centers of socio-economic and political activities in the Sumerian civilization.
>The society of ancient Sumer was divided into three classes, upper (elite), ordinary and lower class.
>Many types of jewellery have been found from the excavation of the tomb of Queen Shub-Ad, which throws important light on Sumerian social life.
>Slavery was an important part of Sumerian society.
>The Sumerians had created the world’s first agricultural calendar.
>The people of Sumer were the first in the world to start the irrigation system by digging canals and building dams on rivers.
>The Sumerians were the first in the world to use the wheel for carrying loads.
>The people of Sumer used silver rods in barter.
>The Sumerians were the first in the world to start the practice of lending money.
>Anu, Enlil, Enki, Prithvi, Inneni etc. were the main gods of Sumer. Every city there had its own god.
>The Sumerian temples built on hills were called ziggurats.
>The Sumerians started the cuneiform script.
>The head teacher of the Sumerian school was called Ummiya.
>The Sumerians were the first to create proverbs and sayings.
>’Urdhwaj’ and ‘Vulture of Iyannatum’ are important examples of sculpture.
>The Sumerians used 60 instead of 100 in the numeral system.
>Lulu was a famous physician of Sumer in 2700 BC.
>The Sumerians were the inventors of arches, domes, pillars and potter’s wheel.
