- Introduction
Focuses on how social relationships (kinship, caste, class) were organized in ancient Indian society.
Sources: Sanskrit texts (especially the Mahabharata), inscriptions, archaeological evidence.
- The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata
The Mahabharata: One of the two major epics of India.
Originally a Jaya (8,800 verses) → Bharata (24,000 verses) → Mahabharata (100,000 verses).
Compiled between 500 BCE to 400 CE.
Composed in Sanskrit.
Includes stories of Kuru-Panchala families, social customs, and war.
Critical Edition by V.S. Sukthankar removed later additions to get the “original” text.
- Kinship: Who could be a relative?
Kinship refers to relationships based on blood or marriage.
Patriliny: Lineage traced through the father (common in upper-caste Hindu families).
Matriliny: Tracing descent through the mother (rare, e.g., some southern tribes).
Gotra system: Developed around 1000 BCE. A patrilineal classification among Brahmanas.
Rules: Marrying within the same gotra was prohibited.
Polygyny: A man had multiple wives.
Levirate: Marrying the widow of a brother.
- Rules of Marriage
Endogamy: Marriage within the same group/caste.
Exogamy: Marriage outside one’s own gotra or group.
Women’s role was limited in the texts.
Texts like the Dharmashastras laid down rules of marriage, inheritance, and kinship.
Kanyadana: Giving away a daughter in marriage—an important religious duty.
- Caste: Social Hierarchies
The varna system classified society into four varnas:
Brahmanas – priests and teachers.
Kshatriyas – warriors and rulers.
Vaishyas – traders and agriculturists.
Shudras – servants and labourers.
Brahmanas claimed highest status and were seen as purer.
Untouchables (avarna) – outside varna system, did menial jobs, faced discrimination.
The system was hereditary and hierarchical.
Manusmriti laid rules for varna and gender-based duties.
- Beyond the Four Varnas: Jatis
Jatis: Sub-castes based on occupation.
More flexible and local than varnas.
Jatis had their own rules, panchayats, and hierarchy.
- Social Differences and Mobility
Though rigid, there were some opportunities for social mobility:
Powerful Shudras or rulers could claim Kshatriya status.
Buddhism and Jainism challenged Brahmanical dominance.
Satavahanas and other dynasties tried to legitimize rule by supporting Brahmanical rituals and marriages.
- Gender and Social Roles
Women were largely excluded from public rituals and inheritance.
But they were essential in lineage, property, and alliance-building through marriage.
Widow remarriage was discouraged among upper castes.
Some queens and royal women had agency (e.g., inscriptions, donations).
- Mahabharata: A Historical Resource
A rich source to understand social values, politics, kinship, etc.
Stories reflect real and ideal behavior in ancient Indian society.
Shows conflicts within families, caste duties, war ethics, and women’s roles.
Draupadi’s story reveals complexities of gender and power.
- Historian’s Use of the Mahabharata
Historians use it critically: differentiate between fact, belief, and later additions.
V.S. Sukthankar’s critical edition helped in filtering the original text.
The epic shows change in social values over time.
- Sources Used in this Chapter
Texts: Mahabharata, Manusmriti, Dharmashastras, Puranas.
Inscriptions and archaeology: Satavahana inscriptions, temple donations.
Commentaries and later versions of epics.
Important Keywords
Patriliny: Inheritance through the male line.
Gotra: Clan traced through the father.
Kanyadana: Giving away a daughter in marriage.
Dharmashastras: Hindu legal and moral texts.
Jati: Sub-caste based on occupation.
Endogamy/Exogamy: Marrying within/outside group.
Mahabharata: Epic source for early Indian society.
Conclusion
The Mahabharata provides a window into early Indian society, its complex kinship structures, caste hierarchies, and gender roles.
Though prescriptive, the texts also show signs of social flexibility and contestation.
