Class 12 History – Chapter 4: Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings detailed NOTES

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1. BACKGROUND: AGE OF DEBATE AND FAITH

• Around 6th century BCE, many thinkers and philosophers questioned:
  • Rituals and sacrifices in Vedic religion.
  • Caste system and authority of Brahmanas.
• Rise of new ideas, sects and philosophies: Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivikas, Charvakas, etc.

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2. BUDDHISM

🔹 Gautama Buddha:

• Born in Lumbini (Nepal), Enlightened at Bodh Gaya, first sermon at Sarnath, died at Kushinagar.
• Advocated simple path to salvation through morality and meditation.

🔹 Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya):

1. Dukkha – Life is full of suffering.
2. Samudaya – Desire causes suffering.
3. Nirodha – Ending desire ends suffering.
4. Magga – The way to end suffering is the Eightfold Path.

🔹 Eightfold Path (Ashtangik Marg):

1. Right View (Samyak Dṛṣṭi)
2. Right Intention (Samyak Sankalpa)
3. Right Speech (Samyak Vāc)
4. Right Action (Samyak Karmānta)
5. Right Livelihood (Samyak Ājīva)
6. Right Effort (Samyak Vāyāma)
7. Right Mindfulness (Samyak Smṛti)
8. Right Concentration (Samyak Samādhi)

🔹 Tripitaka (Three Baskets):

1. Vinaya Pitaka – Rules for monks and nuns.
2. Sutta Pitaka – Teachings and sermons of the Buddha.
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka – Philosophical interpretations.

🔹 Sects of Buddhism:

• Hinayana:
  • Original sect.
  • Believed in individual salvation, no idol worship, language: Pali.
• Mahayana:
  • Emerged later.
  • Believed in idol worship, Bodhisattvas, language: Sanskrit.

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3. JAINISM

🔹 Founder: Vardhaman Mahavira (24th Tirthankara)

• Born in a Kshatriya family in Bihar.
• Attained Kaivalya (omniscience) through meditation.

🔹 Five Vows (Panch Mahavrat):

1. Ahimsa – Non-violence
2. Satya – Truth
3. Asteya – Non-stealing
4. Brahmacharya – Celibacy
5. Aparigraha – Non-possession

🔹 Key Belief: Anekantavada – multiple truths.

🔹 Sects:

• Digambaras: Sky-clad, no possessions.
• Shvetambaras: White-clad, more liberal.

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4. SANGHA – COMMUNITY OF MONKS

• Sangha: Organisation of monks and nuns.
• Rules laid in Vinaya Pitaka.
• Open to all castes and even women (e.g., Mahapajapati Gotami).
• Lived in Viharas, depended on donations (dāna).

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5. JATAKA TALES

• Stories of Buddha’s previous lives as human or animal.
• Teachings of morals and ethics.
• Frequently depicted in stupa sculptures, especially at Sanchi.

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6. STUPAS – SYMBOLS OF FAITH

🔹 Meaning:

• Mound-like structures built to house relics of Buddha or monks.

🔹 Structure of a Stupa:

1. Anda (dome) – symbolizes the world.
2. Harmika – Square railing above the dome.
3. Yasti – Central mast or axis.
4. Chhatra – Umbrella for protection.
5. Vedika – Stone railings surrounding the stupa.
6. Torana – Ornamental four gateways at cardinal directions.

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7. SANCHI STUPA

• Built by Ashoka, enlarged later by Shungas and Satavahanas.
• Toranas (gateways) depict:
  • Jataka stories
  • Life of Buddha through symbols (e.g., tree for enlightenment, wheel for dharma)
  • Donor inscriptions (including common people, women, merchants).

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8. AMARAVATI STUPA

• Located in Andhra Pradesh.
• Larger and richer than Sanchi.
• Narratives more elaborate and fluid.
• Many sculptures taken to British Museum, leading to its ruin over time.

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9. ROLE OF BHOPAL BEGUMS IN SAVING SANCHI STUPA

• In the 19th century, Sanchi was in ruins.
• Begum Shah Jahan of Bhopal and Sultan Jahan Begum:
  • Funded excavation, fencing, restoration.
  • Supported ASI work and conservation.
  • Promoted building a museum to preserve findings.

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10. JOHN MARSHALL’S CONTRIBUTION

• Director-General of ASI (1902–1928).
• Initiated scientific conservation at Sanchi and other sites.
• Involved local population in heritage protection.
• Published documentation of monuments with illustrations and photos.

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11. SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Source	Example
Texts	Tripitaka, Jain Agamas, Jataka tales
Inscriptions	Donor names on railings
Sculptures	Sanchi, Amaravati
Accounts	Chinese pilgrims (Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang)

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CBSE Exam-Focused Topics to Prepare

1. Difference between Mahayana and Hinayana
2. Features of Sanchi Stupa
3. Symbols used for Buddha in sculpture
4. Contribution of Bhopal Begums
5. John Marshall’s role in archaeology
6. Structure and significance of a stupa
7. What do Jataka tales reveal?
8. Panch Mahavrat and Ashtangik Marg

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